Photoreceptor cells in the retina. Credit: Scientific Animations
The blood-retinal barrier is designed to protect vision from infections by preventing microbial pathogens from reaching the retina where they could trigger an inflammatory response with potential vision loss. But researchers at the University of Missouri School of Medicine have discovered that SARS-CoV-2 can breach this protective retinal barrier with potential long-term consequences in the eye. Their findings are reported in PLOS Pathogens.
Pawan Kumar Singh, PhD, an assistant professor of ophthalmology, leads a team researching new ways to prevent and treat ocular infectious diseases. Using a humanised ACE2 mice model, the team found that SARS-CoV-2, can infect the inside of the eyes even when the virus doesn’t enter the body through the surface of the eyes. Instead, they found that when viruses enter the body through inhalation, it not only infects organs like lungs, but also reaches highly protected organs like eyes through the blood-retinal barrier by infecting the cells lining this barrier.
This finding is important as we increase our understanding of the long-term effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection,” said Singh. “Earlier, researchers were primarily focused on the ocular surface exposure of the virus. However, our findings reveal that SARS-CoV-2 not only reaches the eye during systemic infection but induces a hyperinflammatory response in the retina and causes cell death in the blood-retinal barrier. The longer viral remnants remain in the eye, the risk of damage to the retina and visual function increases.”
Singh also discovered that extended presence of SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen can cause retinal microaneurysm, retinal artery and vein occlusion, and vascular leakage.
“For those who have been diagnosed with COVID-19, we recommend you ask your ophthalmologist to check for signs of pathological changes to the retina,” Singh said. “Even those who were asymptomatic could suffer from damage in the eyes over time because of COVID-19 associated complications.”
While viruses and bacteria have been found to breach the blood-retinal-barrier in immunocompromised people, this research is the first to suggest that the virus that causes COVID-19 could breach the barrier even in otherwise healthy individuals, leading to an infection that manifests inside the eye itself. Immunocompromised patients or those with hypertension or diabetes may experience worse outcomes if they remain undiagnosed for COVID-19 associated ocular symptoms.
“Now that we know the risk of COVID-19 to the retina, our goal is to better understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of how this virus breaches the blood-retinal barrier and associated pathological consequences in hopes of informing development of therapies to prevent and treat COVID-19 induced eye complications before a patient’s vision is compromised,” Singh said.
There are viruses out there that nobody has on their radar, but they suddenly appear and, like SARS-CoV-2, can trigger major epidemics. They only have a slight genetic difference from before, the exchange of genetic material between different virus species can lead to the sudden emergence of threatening pathogens with significantly altered characteristics. This is suggested by current genetic analyses carried out by an international team of researchers. Virologists from the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) were in charge of the large-scale study which appears in PLOS Pathogens.
“Using a new computer-assisted analysis method, we discovered 40 previously unknown nidoviruses in various vertebrates from fish to rodents, including 13 coronaviruses,” reports DKFZ group leader Stefan Seitz. With the help of high-performance computers, the research team, which also includes Chris Lauber’s working group from the Helmholtz Center for Infection Research in Hanover, has sifted through almost 300 000 data sets. According to virologist Seitz, the fact that we can now analyse such huge amounts of data in one go opens up completely new perspectives.
Virus research is still in its relative infancy. Only a fraction of all viruses occurring in nature are known, especially those that cause diseases in humans, domestic animals and crops. The new method therefore promises a quantum leap in knowledge with regard to the natural virus reservoir. Stefan Seitz and his colleagues sent genetic data from vertebrates stored in scientific databases through their high-performance computers with new questions. They searched for virus-infected animals in order to obtain and study viral genetic material on a large scale. The main focus was on so-called nidoviruses, which include the coronavirus family.
Nidoviruses, whose genetic material consists of RNA (ribonucleic acid), are widespread in vertebrates. This species-rich group of viruses has some common characteristics that distinguish them from all other RNA viruses and document their relationship. Otherwise, however, nidoviruses are very different from each other, i.e. in terms of the size of their genome.
One discovery is particularly interesting with regard to the emergence of new viruses: In host animals that are simultaneously infected with different viruses, a recombination of viral genes can occur during virus replication. “Apparently, the nidoviruses we discovered in fish frequently exchange genetic material between different virus species, even across family boundaries,” says Stefan Seitz. And when distant relatives “crossbreed,” this can lead to the emergence of viruses with completely new properties. According to Seitz, such evolutionary leaps can affect the aggressiveness and dangerousness of the viruses, but also their attachment to certain host animals.
“A genetic exchange, as we have found in fish viruses, will probably also occur in mammalian viruses,” explains Stefan Seitz. Bats, which — like shrews — are often infected with a large number of different viruses, are considered a true melting pot. The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus probably also developed in bats and jumped from there to humans.
After gene exchange between nidoviruses, the spike protein with which the viruses dock onto their host cells often changes. Chris Lauber, first author of the study, was able to show this by means of family tree analyses. Modifying this anchor molecule can significantly change the properties of the viruses to their advantage – by increasing their infectiousness or enabling them to switch hosts. A change of host, especially from animals to humans, can greatly facilitate the spread of the virus, as the corona pandemic has emphatically demonstrated. Viral “game changers” can suddenly appear at any time, becoming a massive threat and – if push comes to shove – triggering a pandemic. The starting point can be a single double-infected host animal.
The new high-performance computer process could help to prevent the spread of new viruses. It enables a systematic search for virus variants that are potentially dangerous for humans, explains Stefan Seitz. And the DKFZ researcher sees another important possible application with regard to his special field of research, virus-associated carcinogenesis: “I could imagine that we could use the new High Performance Computing (HPC) to systematically examine cancer patients or immunocompromised people for viruses. We know that cancer can be triggered by viruses, the best-known example being human papillomaviruses. But we are probably only seeing the tip of the iceberg so far. The HPC method offers the opportunity to track down viruses that, previously undetected, nestle in the human organism and increase the risk of malignant tumours.”
Researchers from Rutgers University in the U.S. believe that they are ahead in a race to find an oral COVID-19 treatment to supplement or replace the antiviral Paxlovid. Their report, published in Science, shows that an alternative medication, a viral papain-like protease inhibitor, inhibits disease progression in animals while also possessing an important advantage over Paxlovid – fewer prescription drug contraindications.
“COVID-19 remains the nation’s third leading cause of death, so there’s already a massive need for additional treatment options,” said Jun Wang, senior author of the study and associate professor at Rutgers. “That need will grow more urgent when, inevitably, COVID-19 mutates in ways that prevent Paxlovid from working.”
The Rutgers team hoped to make a drug that interfered with viral papain-like protease (PLpro), a protein that performs important functions in all known strains of COVID-19.
Creating such a drug required detailed information about PLpro’s structure, which Wang’s team got from the Arnold Lab at Rutgers’ Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine (CABM).
Precise knowledge of PLpro’s structure enabled Wang’s team to design and synthesise 85 drug candidates that would bond to – and interfere with – this vital protein.
“The PLpro crystal structures showed an unexpected arrangement of how the drug candidate molecules bind to its protein target, leading to innovative design ideas implemented by professor Wang’s medicinal chemistry team,” said Eddy Arnold, who is a professor at CABM.
Laboratory testing established that the most effective of those drug candidates, a compound dubbed Jun12682, inhibited several strains of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, including strains that resist treatment with Paxlovid.
Oral treatment with Jun12682 on SARS-CoV-2-infected mice was shown to reduce viral lung loads and lesions while improving survival rates.
“Our treatment was about as effective in mice as Paxlovid was in its initial animal tests,” said Wang, who added the experimental drug appears to have at least one major advantage over the older drug.
“Paxlovid interferes with many prescription medications, and most people who face the highest risk of severe COVID-19 take other prescription medicines, so it’s a real problem,” Wang said.
“We tested our candidate Jun12682 against major drug-metabolising enzymes and saw no evidence that it would interfere with other medications.”
Red mitochondria in airway cells become coated with green SARS-COV-2 proteins after viral infection: Researchers discovered that the virus that causes COVID-19 damages lungs by attacking mitochondria. Credit: Stephen Archer
Viruses and bacteria have a very long history. Because viruses can’t reproduce without a host, they’ve been attacking bacteria for millions of years. Some of those bacteria eventually became mitochondria, synergistically adapting to life within eukaryotic cells (cells that have a nucleus containing chromosomes).
Ultimately, mitochondria became the powerhouses within all human cells.
This is the story of how a team, assembled during the pandemic, recognized the mechanism by which these viruses were causing lung injury and lowering oxygen levels in patients: It is a throwback to the primitive war between viruses and bacteria – more specifically, between this novel virus and the evolutionary offspring of bacteria, our mitochondria.
SARS-CoV-2 is the third novel coronavirus to cause human outbreaks in the 21st century, following SARS-CoV in 2003 and MERS-CoV in 2012. We need to better understand how coronaviruses cause lung injury to prepare for the next pandemic.
How COVID-19 affects lungs
People with severe COVID-19 pneumonia often arrive at the hospital with unusually low oxygen levels. They have two unusual features distinct from patients with other types of pneumonia:
First, they suffer widespread injury to their lower airway (the alveoli, which is where oxygen is taken up).
Second, they shunt blood to unventilated areas of the lung, which is called ventilation-perfusion mismatch. This means blood is going to parts of the lung where it won’t get sufficiently oxygenated.
We already knew that mitochondria are not just the powerhouse of the cell, but also its main consumers and sensors of oxygen. Mitochondria control the process of programmed cell death (called apoptosis), and they regulate the distribution of blood flow in the lung by a mechanism called hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction.
This mechanism has an important function. It directs blood away from areas of pneumonia to better ventilated lobes of the lung, which optimizes oxygen-uptake. By damaging the mitochondria in the smooth muscle cells of the pulmonary artery, the virus allows blood flow to continue into areas of pneumonia, which also lowers oxygen levels.
It appeared plausible that SARS-CoV-2 was damaging mitochondria. The results of this damage – an increase in apoptosis in airway epithelial cells, and loss of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction – were making lung injury and hypoxaemia (low blood oxygen) worse.
Our discovery, published in Redox Biology, explains how SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus that causes COVID-19 pneumonia, reduces blood oxygen levels.
We show that SARS-CoV-2 kills airway epithelial cells by damaging their mitochondria. This results in fluid accumulation in the lower airways, interfering with oxygen uptake. We also show that SARS-CoV-2 damages mitochondria in the pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells, which inhibits hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and lowers oxygen levels.
Attacking mitochondria
Coronaviruses damage mitochondria in two ways: by regulating mitochondria-related gene expression, and by direct protein-protein interactions. When SARS-CoV-2 infects a cell, it hijacks the host’s protein synthesis machinery to make new virus copies. However, these viral proteins also target host proteins, causing them to malfunction. We soon learned that many of the host cellular proteins targeted by SARS-CoV-2 were in the mitochondria.
How SARS-CoV-2 targets mitochondria to kill lung cells and prevent oxygen sensing. Credit: Brooke Ring, provided by Stephen Archer
Viral proteins fragment the mitochondria, depriving cells of energy and interfering with their oxygen-sensing capability. The viral attack on mitochondria starts within hours of infection, turning on genes that break the mitochondria into pieces (called mitochondrial fission) and make their membranes leaky (an early step in apoptosis called mitochondrial depolarization).
In our experiments, we didn’t need to use a replicating virus to damage the mitochondria – simply introducing single SARS-CoV-2 proteins was enough to cause these adverse effects. This mitochondrial damage also occurred with other coronaviruses that we studied.
We are now developing drugs that may one day counteract COVID-19 by blocking mitochondrial fission and apoptosis, or by preserving hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Our drug discovery efforts have already enabled us to identify a promising mitochondrial fission inhibitor, called Drpitor1a.
Our team’s infectious diseases expert, Gerald Evans, notes that this discovery also has the potential to help us understand Long COVID. “The predominant features of that condition – fatigue and neurologic dysfunction – could be due to the lingering effects of mitochondrial damage caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection,” he explains.
Bacteria are regularly attacked by viruses, called bacteriophages, that need a host to replicate in. The bacteria in turn fight back, using an ancient form of immune system called the CRISPR-cas system, that chops up the viruses’ genetic material. Humans have recently exploited this CRISPR-cas system for a Nobel Prize-winning gene editing discovery.
The ongoing competition between bacteria and viruses is a very old one; and recall that our mitochondria were once bacteria. So perhaps it’s not surprising at all that SARS-CoV-2 attacks our mitochondria as part of the COVID-19 syndrome.
Pandemic pivot
The original team members on this project are heart and lung researchers with expertise in mitochondrial biology. In early 2020 we pivoted to apply that in another field – virology – in an effort to make a small contribution to the COVID-19 puzzle.
Our discovery owes a lot to our virology collaborators. Early in the pandemic, University of Toronto virologist Gary Levy offered us a mouse coronavirus (MHV-1) to work with, which we used to make a model of COVID-19 pneumonia. Che Colpitts, a virologist at Queen’s University, helped us study the mitochondrial injury caused by another human beta coronavirus, HCoV-OC43.
Finally, Arinjay Banerjee and his expert SARS-CoV-2 virology team at Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO) in Saskatoon performed key studies of human SARS-CoV-2 in airway epithelial cells. VIDO is one of the few Canadian centres equipped to handle the highly infectious SARS-CoV-2 virus.
Our team’s super-resolution microscopy expert, Jeff Mewburn, notes the specific challenges the team had to contend with.
“Having to follow numerous and extensive COVID-19 protocols, they were still able to exhibit incredible flexibility to retool and refocus our laboratory specifically on the study of coronavirus infection and its effects on cellular/mitochondrial functions, so very relevant to our global situation,” he said.
Our discovery will hopefully be translated into new medicines to counter future pandemics.
